Indian Defence Review

Introduction

The 2010s are often called the golden age of drones. In the military domain, they caught popular imagination due to their extensive use in Afghanistan post 9/11. Two decades later, their decisive battle-winning role in Nagorno Karabakh – propelled them to the military mainstream as weapons that were more likely than not to be confronted in future.

They are difficult to detect and useful for a large number of military tasks[1]. Their applications include tasks like reconnaissance and espionage, night vision, target designation, mapping enemy movements, over the horizon communication and navigation aid, transporting logistics, swarm attacks, search & rescue and gun platforms. Airborne disposable autonomous drones with their suicide missions are the latest quintessential reality.

History

• The concept of an unmanned flying object possibly dates back to 1849, when Austria attacked Venice using unmanned balloons stuffed with explosives[2]. While balloons are strictly not in accordance with the current definition of drones, it does show that conceptually usage of unmanned aerial crafts was considered even then.
• The first aerial unmanned vehicle was the Ruston Proctor Aerial Target, which appeared in 1916[3]. Subsequently, technology improvement ensured better drones, albeit most were nothing more than one-way missions or targets for anti-aircraft crew[4].
• The 50s saw the appearance of recoverable drones. They provided a solution to the vexing issue of losing pilots during aerial recce/photography, which by then had become essential. On 15 Nov 1964 a Firebee Spy Drone was shot down over China[5]– the first known use of recce drones. Vietnam saw the first en masse use under Operation Buffalo Hunter[6]. Loss of 31 Americans when North Korea shot down a US aircraft on 15 Apr 1969[7] incited US drone research.
• Israel an early adopter of the technology, used these extensively for intelligence gathering[8]. In Yom Kippur War, their drones were credited with reducing losses[9]. The combination of drone recce and decoy capabilities was again credited with the destruction of Syrian forces in the 1982 Lebanon war[10].
• Subsequent developments in the miniaturized transistor and power source permitted increased payloads and brought the drone industry into the recreational and commercial fields – boosting further improvement. Concomitantly assault drones emerged and became household names post 9/11. There have been few conflicts thereafter wherein reports of drones being used have not emerged.
• While, Nagorno-Karabakh suggests drones being extremely difficult to counter, over the last few decades multiple have been shot down[11]. Prior to the autumn 2020 war Armenia and Azerbaijan had clashed in July 2020 when 13 drones had been shot down by the former[12], apart from 3 captured in 2012 and 2017[13]. As drone usage increases, counter-drone technology is catching up[14]. In days to come, the heavier more expensive drone may lose its relevance as a low-cost multitask aviation.
• It can therefore be reasonably inferred that drone technology is not a technology of the future but of today. It has been around for more than a couple of decades and has been used as a weapon of war in various theatres. As technology develops, the balance between the sword and the shield is likely to be restored once again and counter-drone technology development will take center stage in the years ahead. Resultantly, drone losses are likely to mount and the logic of its employment – as a low-cost option – may well come into question.

Tactical Versus Strategic Drones

Advantages of Drones.  The raison d’être of drones[15] is affordability[16], the safety of the pilot[17] and end-user control[18]. The experience of the drones in Idlib[19], Libya[20] and now in Nagorno-Karabakh shows that

• Losing men and equipment to cheap equipment whose handler is beyond strike range, is demoralizing enough to cause a rout.
• Drones need to be preceded by the degradation of enemy air defenses.
• Kamikaze-drones are ideal for countering enemy air defenses.
• Drones flying over hills and mountains can control valleys thereby negating the defensive advantages of mountains.
• Military personnel and equipment without overhead cover and camouflage are easily detected and neutralized.
• Drones can assist in indirect fire control.

Classifications Drones are essentially classified as class I, II, and III, depending on the weight[21], the equipment they carry, and cost.

• Detection and two-way communication equipment are essential in all, albeit the quality & genre varies.
• For detection, while class I are mostly equipped with only electrooptical equipment; the more expensive and heavier drones may have radars or radiofrequency detectors.
• Similarly, direct data link from a satellite/ground-station combination is common in tactical drones, while the strategic/operational maybe have onboard artificial intelligence too.
• Albeit, all drone operations will have a Flight Controller [22], Ground Control Station[23]and Data Links[24]. Control can be visual line-of-sight using direct radio-waves or beyond visual line-of-sight requiring satellite communications[25].
• Further, all drones need to be backed with strike capability – either onboard or in a follow-up mode. Former could be projectiles fired from the drone or a suicide-mode. Follow up mode, on the other hand, would involve other assets and precision munitions, which would raise the cost of the operation. Hence, it can be reasonably inferred that heavier more expensive drones will be used more at the outset of a conflict before enemy counter-drone capability has been deployed or post its suppression. The latter would require holding back adequate stocks of precision-guided munitions. Albeit, tactical drones are more likely to be employed at all stages of the war for surveillance cum strike.
• Having been positioned as an effective multi-task weapon in warfare and thus a cheaper option for tactical aviation[26]; the lighter tactical drones are more likely to adversely affect the soldier in battle. Risking a similar or more expensive drone to engage an opponent’s equipment would be contrary to the raison d’être of using the drone.

Drones at Tactical Level

• Aviation assets are seldom available for tactical commanders and hence not sufficiently responsive to their needs. Resultantly there is significant turnaround time between requests and realization of tasks. The delay could be critical and have serious consequences. Moreover, with their costs, aviation assets even when available, tend to fly much higher and therefore tactical information and contact tasking is often scanty. The gap is exacerbated by the time taken for information (when available) to filter down. This critical gap, of timely, responsive and accurate airborne assets at the tactical level can be bridged with drones. Apart from strikes, tasks which tactical commanders can execute with drones include: –
• Intelligence Determining enemy intent is critical for all commanders. While commanders at higher levels seek enemy intent at ranges where the latter is still beyond immediate contact, at the tactical level the intent is discernible once contact is imminent or has commenced. Hence. real-time intelligence is more pertinent at the tactical level then at operational or strategic levels. Indicators for the intent are best available from an aerial platform.
• Coordination of own resources is critical in battle. Commanders have to rely on reports, to assess the battle-situation and form a picture. A wrong claim or report can lead to defeat. For tactical commanders, the shorter reaction time makes it perilous. Drones can be valuable in permitting the commanders to view the battlefield in real-time.
• Fire Control Observation is the limiting factor for indirect fire. If the same can be provided further ahead, weapon ranges can be fully exploited. While air observation provides it, its assets are limited. Drones provide ideal solutions for the same.
• Over the Ridge Line / Around the Corner / Defiles’ Visuals Ridgelines have always provided a challenge to tactical commanders. Whether climbing up or down or whether on the flanks – these locations which lend themselves naturally for ambushes and stand-off attacks – always induce an extra caution. The varied terrains of operations have added corners and defiles (especially in jungles) to the list. Drones can be invaluable for the tactical commanders in such areas enabling sight to be projected far before.
• Over the Horizon Communication With essentially line-of-sight communications, tactical commanders are adversely affected by the limitation. Drones can help overcome this problem with ease. Also, when required they can assist in extending the range of the communication equipment.
• Critical Supplies Weight carrying capacities of tactical drones are limited. Albeit, in an emergency, they can carry essential emergent supplies, a difference between life and death sometimes.

Counter Insurgency (CI)

• SADO[27]Among the most challenging of the operations. Drones can not only be used as a guide to the areas which need to be sanitized but also engage moving targets which maybe lost during the planning and launch of the operation. If used in the latter mode, they can trammel rural insurgency.
• Counter Infiltration and Plugging Cordon Gaps An effective cordon is a prerequisite of any successful CI operation. Albeit, no cordon can ever be a hundred percent effective especially in hilly jungle terrain. Counter infiltration too faces similar challenges. Tactical drones can be effectively used to plug these gaps. They can spot insurgents exfiltrating the cordon line and redirect troops to intercept them. If need be, they can even be used to neutralize insurgents.
• Round the Corner Corners of lanes/houses and other structures blocking view cause forbiddance while operating in built-up areas. Restricted vision, inability to use line-of-sight weapons and possible collateral damage are an issue of concern. With their sight projection capabilities, drones would be an invaluable aid.
• Crowd-Management Crowds are increasingly becoming an issue of concern during urban and semi-urban CI. Albeit, crowds take time to build. If prior warning is available, they can be managed. Drones’ eye in the sky is ideal for the role.
• To harness these advantages US marines added drone batteries in 1984[28].

Requirements of a Tactical Drones

Technical Requirements

• Modular to enable adaptation for multiple roles in field conditions.
• Capable of day and night operations.
• Adequate command and control.
• Survivability in a high threat environment with electronic counter-measures.
• Responsiveness and quick turnaround.

Policy Requirements With the proliferations of drones, a policy to regulate its boundaries in all the physical domains and electronic bands is essential. Unless implemented strictly, they can cause serious accidents and interference with other equipment.

Counter Drone Operations

• With their proliferation, drones are a potent threat to soldiers. Inability to counter them at the tactical level would lead to loss of lives. Counter drone equipment is expensive and hence unlikely to be available at the tactical level. Latter hence, would have to implement non-technical counter drone measures.
• Al-Qaeda issued its own guidance for avoiding drone attacks[29]. A perusal of the same, along with the videos of drones in action in the various recent conflicts shows that most of men and equipment hit, were not following the passive measures recommended by this document.

Overhead Camouflage and Concealment

• Anything which can be spotted by the drone, can be hit.
• Majority of the drones as yet are equipped with electro-optical equipment. Other technologies while available, are expensive and their availability therefore limited.
• This necessitates a review of the camouflage and concealment policy, as also authorization and holding of equipment. No stationery individual or piece of equipment can afford to be without overhead camouflage. Overhead camouflage would also have to cater for thermal imagers as these are frequently found on all drones. Conductive material[30]is known to be able to defeat these and hence would have to be included.

Shot Guns and Tactical Weapons

• Drones are so fragile that almost anything that hits them or touches them is likely to cause them to crash or lose orientation[31].
• While high flying drones would be beyond the range of weapons normally available at the frontline – tactical drones may well be within range. Shotguns, snipers and automatic weapons used with tracer rounds can be employed against them.

Data Links and Control Stations Unlike the rest, tactical drones will rely on data links direct with ground control stations. For the increasing line of sight communication, these may well be established on existing towers. Developing adequate intelligence of ground control stations and their early destruction would be required.

https://www.claws.in/drone-and-counter-drone-warfare-at-tactical-level/Drones are not the technology of tomorrow; they are the technology of today. On a development scale, they are akin to aircraft in 1939. No longer a wonder, capable of changing the battle but only with asymmetry. While unfavorable asymmetry is disastrous, favorable asymmetry is battle-winning. The costlier class II and III drones are likely to be challenged and may be available only sporadically. Tactical drones offer an opportunity to create such a favorable asymmetry. The advantages they accrue for tactical commanders are disproportionate to any other single system or the costs involved. Simultaneously, anti-drone measures and drills need to be introduced, practiced and followed to deny these advantages to the adversary.

Courtesy: https://www.claws.in/drone-and-counter-drone-warfare-at-tactical-level/