Indian Defence Review

After the mid-1990s, the Russian Navy started disposing of their carriers:

A new, nuclear-powered carrier design, with the newest materials, weapons and sensors is under development. Construction is expected to commence in 2010 and complete in 2016. The Russian Northern and Pacific Fleets are expected to have one each of this class.

Until these new aircraft carriers enter service, Kuznetsov is the Russian Navy’s only operational aircraft carrier. Its air group comprises SU 27 K and MIG 29 K aircraft (K connotes ship borne-navalised versions of the Air Force SU 27 and MIG 29) along with Kamov 27 ASW and Kamov 31 AEW helicopters.

British Aircraft Carriers

In the early 1960s, the Royal Navy’s plans had envisaged a large fleet carrier and three small (12,500 ton) anti-submarine helicopter carriers. Britain’s economic difficulties in the mid-1960s, led to the cancellation of the large carrier project and the transfer of naval strike aircraft to its Air Force.

The Royal Navy, however, remained reluctant to forego the tactical advantages that aircraft carriers conferred in distant naval operations that were beyond the reach of shore-based Air Force aircraft. It pursued two projects:

Apprehensive that the role of its Naval Air Arm might be permanently confined to helicopters, the Royal Navy intensified its involvement in the development of the navalised version of the land-based V/STOL Harrier fighter aircraft. The 12,500-ton design was reworked into a larger, 19,500-ton ship which it named as a “Through-Deck Cruiser” to make it politically acceptable for obtaining financial approval. The ship had a flight deck from which it could operate helicopters.  The flight deck was then fitted with a ski jump to enable the Sea Harrier aircraft to do a Short Take-off (STO) into the wind instead of a Vertical Take-off (VTO) – the STO enabled increase in overall payload of fuel/weapons when getting airborne.

The first ship, Invincible commissioned in 1980. Her air group comprised Sea Harriers and Seaking anti-submarine helicopters.

In 1981, again because of financial difficulties, Britain considered whether its Navy should be essentially an Anti-Submarine force built around destroyers and frigates, whether the Through Deck Cruiser programme should be halted, whether the Hermes should be scrapped and whether the first through deck cruiser, Invincible, should be sold to Australia. These considerations were overtaken by the crisis precipitated by Argentina’s invasion of Britain’s Falkland Islands, located in the distant South Atlantic Ocean, 8000 miles from Britain. Argentina had decided to force a solution for its long-standing dispute regarding the sovereignty over these islands.

In the 1982 Falkland Islands War between Britain and Argentina, the Royal Navy deployed two aircraft carriers – the old Hermes and the new Invincible. In addition to Sea Harrier combat aircraft and Seaking anti-submarine helicopters, these carriers also had a few experimental Seaking Airborne Early Warning (AEW) helicopters embarked.

Both carriers returned to Britain in mid-1982, unharmed by the Argentine Air Force’s missile-armed Mirages and Skyhawks because the carriers stayed out of their range, but having lost a number of Sea Harrier aircraft and pilots in combat.

Illustrious, the second ship of the Invincible class, commissioned in 1982. The third ship, Ark Royal, commissioned in 1985 after incorporating the improvements and modifications identified after the Falklands War.

A fourth ship, Ocean, after modification, was commissioned in 1998 exclusively as a helicopter carrier to meet NATO requirements

In 1985, Hermes renamed Viraat was bought by India.

Invincible was mothballed in 2005 for reactivation at short notice. Illustrious and Ark Royal are in service and are planned to decommission in 2012 and 2015 respectively on being replaced by new larger carriers.

Britain had started work in the mid 1980s on a design for the successors of its Invincible class carriers. After the Cold War ended in 1991 and the Russian threat receded, it took time to clarify the types of aircraft that future carriers would operate.

In 1999, Britain awarded assessment studies to two consortia, British and French, to submit designs for a carrier that would embark air groups of 30 to 40 Joint Strike Fighters that were then under development in America.

In 2002, Britain announced that its Navy and Air Force would operate the American STOVL F-35 B aircraft, and that its carriers would be large and conventionally propelled, adapted for STOVL operations and convertible for CATOBAR operations for the generation of aircraft after the F-35.

In 2003, the French design won the competition and a Carrier Alliance was formed between France and Britain to save on the high cost of designing and constructing a modern aircraft carrier. In March 2006, Britain and France signed an agreement to cooperate in the construction of three 58,000-ton aircraft carriers – two for Britain and one for France. These carriers would embark up to 45 of their respective latest-generation fighters and helicopters.

To minimise manpower costs, the Royal Navy aims to have a total complement of 1400 (800 to operate and maintain the ship and 600 to operate and maintain the air group) as against the 2,000 that a carrier of that size presently needs.

French Aircraft Carriers

In the 1960s, France had two aircraft carriers – Foch and Clemenceau. Planning for their replacement commenced in the 1970s. There was debate on whether aircraft carrier propulsion should be conventional or nuclear powered. Eventually, it was decided that despite the high cost, the next carrier should be nuclear propelled. Apart from the operational advantages, this would enable France’s warship industry to keep abreast of hi-tech propulsion design.

Construction of the 36,000-ton, nuclear powered aircraft carrier started in 1989 and completed in 1994. Unfortunately, a variety of technical problems delayed its entry into service. After aircraft trials, the flight deck had to be lengthened. There were unacceptable levels of vibrations. After the teething problems had been sorted out, she was formally commissioned in 2001 as Charles de Gaulle.

The problems experienced and the cost of construction and operating the ship dissuaded the French Navy from considering a second nuclear powered carrier.

Having decided not to build a nuclear propelled successor to the Charles de Gaulle, the French Navy awaited the outcome of the Anglo-French competition to design Britain’s aircraft carriers. With the formation of the Carrier Alliance in 2003, the possibility emerged of France sharing the British design for its next carrier.

In 2006, France and Britain reached an agreement to cooperate on the design of their future carriers. Reportedly, France agreed to pay Britain over £100 million for access to the British design.

The French design will be a variant of the British 58,000-ton design so as to operate French Rafale aircraft being navalised for carrier operations. It is likely to enter service around 2015 when the Charles de Gaulle will require a major refit and her nuclear reactors will be refuelled.

Chinese Aircraft Carriers

Varyag’s completion was interrupted due to Russia’s financial crisis in the 1990s. It was bought by the Chinese Navy. Equipment is now being acquired to make Varyag operational by 2010.

Earlier this year, a Hong Kong newspaper quoted a People’s Liberation Army Lt Gen as saying

“The Chinese Army will build an aircraft carrier and develop our own aircraft carrier fleet. An aircraft carrier is a very important tool for big countries defending their interests in the sea. China is a big country with a long shoreline. An aircraft carrier is necessary to defend our interests in the sea. The carrier fleet will not be complete for another three to five years.”

The newspaper added that aircraft for the carrier are either being built or completed and that China’s first aircraft carrier would be deployed in the South China Sea near the energy fuel supply route where warships are now deployed.

The military cooperation between Russia and China, combined with China’s experience in making Varyag operational (even if only as a carrier for training its pilots) makes it feasible for China’s first indigenous aircraft carrier to enter service in 2015/2020, not long after India’s indigenous aircraft carrier enters service.

Indian Aircraft Carriers

Even though the need for a naval air arm and an aircraft carrier had been accepted in principle before, and again, after Independence in 1947, negotiations for the acquisition of the 1940s vintage Hercules from Britain concluded only in 1957. Apart from the lack of resources for so large a project, this ten year delay was also caused by the outbreak of the Korean War, which prevented the Royal Navy from releasing to India a British aircraft carrier with British combat aircraft.

Hercules-Vikrant

Hercules’ 4-year refit cum modernisation commenced in 1957 during which an angled deck, a steam catapult and a mirror landing sight were installed, electronic and electrical equipment was replaced, essential spaces were air conditioned, accommodation was provided for additional manpower and facilities were provided to enable the carrier to function as the Fleet flagship. Vikrant commissioned in 1961.

In subsequent years, Vikrant underwent modernisation in two phases:-

Hermes-Viraat

The 1953 vintage, 22,000-ton aircraft carrier Hermes was commissioned in the Royal Navy in 1959. Britain’s economic difficulties in the 1960s led to the decision in 1966 to reduce the size of its Navy and transfer naval ‘strike’ aircraft to its Air Force. Hermes’ catapult and arrestor wires were removed and she was placed in reserve. In 1973, she was taken out of reserve and refitted as an ‘Anti-submarine Helicopter Carrier’ to meet NATO commitments in the Atlantic Ocean.

After aircraft trials in 1978, Hermes was fitted with a 12-degree ski jump to enable it to operate Sea Harrier aircraft. In 1982, then by now 28, 000-ton Hermes, with Sea Harrier combat aircraft and Seaking anti-submarine helicopters embarked, participated in the Falklands War. In 1983, Britain decided to place Hermes in reserve. She remained idle from 1984 onwards.

In 1985, Britain offered to sell the Hermes to India. The Navy had a long pending need for a second aircraft carrier to ensure that out of two carriers, at least one would be available should a sudden need arise.1[1] India accepted the offer and after an extensive modernisation – refit, Hermes was commissioned as Viraat and arrived in India in 1987, fully equipped to operate Sea Harriers in the VSTOL mode and Seaking helicopters for the ASW role.

At present, Viraat is India’s only aircraft carrier.

Gorshkov-Vikramaditya

In 1995, Russia offered to sell the 44,500 ton Gorshkov to India. After extensive evaluations and negotiations, contracts were signed in 2004 for Gorshkov’s  modernisation-tropicalisation-hull and machinery-refit and for her air group of Russian combat aircraft and helicopters.

As was done for the first aircraft carrier Vikrant between 1956 and 1961 and as was done for the second carrier Viraat between 1985 and 1987, the Gorshkov is undergoing an extensive modernisation and tropicalisation refit in Russia before she is inducted into the Navy.

After this refit, the fifteen-year -old Gorshkov will serve for another two to three decades. During this period, the present aircraft carrier Viraat will phase out and be replaced by the first indigenous aircraft carrier.

Gorshkov is expected to enter service in 2008 as INS Vikramaditya.

The Indigenous Air Defence Ship (ADS) Project

The project for an indigenous aircraft carrier took shape in 1979. In the 1980s, a concept study by France’s DCN, assisted by a team of Indian Naval architects, evolved designs for a 25,000 ton catapult version and a ski jump version. The study also confirmed that the carrier could be built in the Cochin Shipyard. Financial constraints precluded sanction for a carrier of this size and the next few years were spent in juggling designs for a smaller carrier. The grey area was the type and number of aircraft that the ADS would operate.

In the mid-1990s, Russia offered India the Gorshkov along with the carrier-borne version of the land-based MIG 29 aircraft that the Air Force had already inducted. Meanwhile, development had also commenced of the navalised, carrier-borne version of the indigenous land-based Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) being developed for the Air Force.

The types of combat aircraft that would fly from the ADS now became clear – the British V/STOL Sea Harriers (after Viraat decommissioned), the Russian STOBAR MIG 29 Ks (being inducted with the Gorshkov) and the navalised LCAs (when developed).

The staff requirements were finalised in 1999 for a gas turbine propelled, 28-knot, 37,000-ton carrier with an angled deck and a ski jump, to operate an air group of 30 combat aircraft and helicopters and manned by 1400 personnel.

Approval was accorded in 2003. Cochin Shipyard commenced construction in 2005. The nomenclature of the project changed from Air Defence Ship (ADS) to Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC).

The IAC is expected to enter service by 2013.