It was during the Medieval period that a number of Indian Vessels were constructed, for the first time, purely for war at sea. Facilities for launching catapults and incendiary throwers, however, existed even earlier on board Indian ship.
With the coming of the Portuguese in 1498, building of warships in India underwent a change when guns were mounted on board. The practice was first adopted by the Zamorin of Calicut emulating the Portuguese ships.
The ancient shipbuilding in India goes back to the third millennium BC in the Harappan times (Indus Civilisation). The Harappans built the first tide dock of the world for berthing and servicing ships at the port town of Lothal in about 2500 BC. For inland waterways, flat bottomed boats of the type suggested by the terracotta models were used. An engraving on a seal from mohenjodaro represents a sailing ship with a high prow, the stern was made of reeds. In the centre, it had a square cabin. Out of the five miniature clay models of boats, one is complete and represents a ship with sails. The latter has a sharp keel, a pointed prow and a high flat stern.
In the second model, the stern and the prow were both curved high up as in the Egyptian boats of the Garzean period. The three other models found at Lothal have a flat base and a pointed prow. Apparently these flat based craft were used in rivers and creeks without sails, while the other two types with sails and sharp keels plied on high seas and were berthed in deep water of the gulf. Perhaps the Canoe types of flat-based boats were the only ones, which could be sluiced at high tide. Another type of boat was seen with multiple oars. The Harappan ship may have been as big as the modern craft, which bring timber from Malabar to Gogha. On this analogy, it can be assumed that a load of 60 tons could be carried by these ship. The sizes of the anchor stones found in the Lothal Dock also support this view.
The technology of shipbuilding was a hereditary profession passing from father to son and was a monopoly of a particular caste of people. The local builders used the hand, fingers and feet as the units of measurement. In different places different kinds of boats were built for specific purposes. For construction of ship, the teak (Tectona Grandis) wood is generally employed in India.
The Earlier Vedic Period – (The Dark Age for Shipbuilding – 2000 to 600 BC)
All the advancement of the Harappa culture some how got wiped out and its achievements buried deep, until it was unearthed centuries later. Thus there was a dark age in India’s history. During the earlier Vedic period ( 2000 to 600 BC), there was no evidence of their culture until about 600 to 500 BC.
Later Vedic Period and the Mauryan Era – (600 to 200 BC)
During the later Vedic Period ( 600 to 200 BC), there are references to ocean voyages, description of boats and passages. The earliest reference of maritime activities in India occurs in Rig Veda; “ Do thou whose countenance is turned to all side send off our adversaries, as if in a ship to the opposite shore; do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare. “ — Rig Veda 1, 97, 7 & 8
For the later period we have a remarkable work, Kautilya Arthasastra, which was written during 321 to 300 BC. During the Maurya period, a Superintendent of ships (Navadyaksa) was appointed for building and maintenance of boats. There are accounts in Pali literature on the size of vessels which could accommodate 700 passengers. We have the Buddhist Jatakas of the 5th/6th century BC, which give us the tales of overseas travel. We know that ocean going ships existed then, but unfortunately the material is meager in the description of vessels in details. During Mauryan epoch, however, we have more information. Boats some of them 30 oared, have been built in the Punjab for Alexander’s fleet.
Post Gupta Era
The Sanskrit work, Yukti Kalpataru of post-Gupta era mentions of vessels with single, double, treble and four masts, and presumably as many sails. From this we gather information on the art of shipbuilding in ancient India. In the use of metals, in ship construction, the work recommends gold, silver and copper or an alloy of two or more of these elements. It strongly forbids the use of iron, particularly for joining sides and bottom, for fear of exposing ships to the influence of magnetic rocks in the sea.
The industrial revolution, however, brought in its wake a number of changes in ship construction. The advent of the paddle steamers relegated Indias shipbuilding techniques based on sail propulsion. In 1836, screw propeller was invented.
Although the technique of joining timbers by nails and rivets was known in the medieval period, the shipbuilders preferred to lash together with ropes. This practice was widely followed in South India, which earned such a boat the nomenclature : “Catamaran”. This preference for tying by rope was due to the fact that such vessels were more resilient to monsoon conditions than the nailed ones. The planks were joined together, tied with ropes and stuffed with oakum and painted over on either side with a concoction of quick lime and oil to make it water proof. To be on the safe side the bottom was double planked.
By about 200 BC, ships were built in larger and larger sizes. Number of bulkheads were increased; some had as many as 13 of these in order to cater for accidents to ships sides. Ships of 200 ton, carrying over 100 persons were reported to have been built. The wood used was mainly of Malabar teak and was found superior in durability than oak used in foreign vessels.
Oars to Sails – (0 to 1100 AD)
In 45 AD , when ‘trade winds’ were discovered, the multi-oared galleys gave place to sail ships. The oars were retained as these were used when wind dropped at sea, and also for maneuvering inside harbours. Eventually, the sail ships completely eclipsed multi-oared galleys, which are now seen only during the annual Kerala boat races! The early sails were lateen or triangular in shape made of coarse cloth, and later with light canvas. Triangular sails were then replaced by square and rectangular sails.
The ships which carried a larger number of sails were normally square rigged, built with more than one deck. It is a recorded fact that Pushyadeva, the ruler of Sindh pushed back the formidable Arab navy attacks in 756 AD which only indicated his marine prowess. The historical text Yukti Kalpataru (11th century AD) deals with shipbuilding and gives details of various types of ships. Boats used for different purposes were called by different names such as Samanya, Madhyawa, Visesha for passenger service, cargo, fishing and ferrying over the river.
The ships so constructed rode the sea well, withstood the high swell during cyclones and could sail almost as fast as the wind blew. The distinctive feature of all these vessels was the high prow and stern. This facilitated carrying the forward anchor well above the waterline, and the helmsman aft could sit at a commanding height, affording better visibility. More importantly, such a construction restricted shipping of sea waters on board due to pitching in high swell. The Monarchs who owned the vessels, had their motifs carved on the sides of the stern, such as peacock, lion, swan etc. Thus entered artistry in shipbuilding too.
The Hindu Period – (1175 AD to 1572 AD)
The Hindu Kingdom since the days of Mauryans, had built ships at Calicut, Cochin, Kaveripattinam, Masulipatnam and Calcutta. There were two types of ships built; the “Monoxylon” and the “Colandiophonta”. The “Monoxylon”, as the name implies was cut out of a single log, and in order to accommodate about 100 to 150 persons, it was raised with planks athwart in tiers. The “Monoxylon’ were used in coastal traffic and these were referred to in the Periplus of the Erithroem Sea as “Sangara.” The ‘Colandiophonta’, however were ocean-going ships and were proportionately large and sturdy being of more than 1000 tons.
The Medieval Period – (1378 to 1797 AD)
Indians of the Medieval period did not particularly build very large ships, like the Chinese Junks, because such ships could not enter small ports and estuaries studded around India, nor could they negotiate the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
It was during the Medieval period that a number of Indian Vessels were constructed, for the first time, purely for war at sea. Facilities for launching catapults and incendiary throwers, however, existed even earlier on board Indian ship.
The size of the Indian Ship was, however, larger than the European vessels of the contemporary period. During the Muslim period ( 1000 to 1700 AD ), the Seafaring Arabs entered the Indian Maritime Scene. They came as merchants in their Dhows from 11th century onwards in substantial numbers and effectively edged out the Hindus from shipping trade by about 16th century.
Through Arab patronage, shipbuilding yards thrived on the Malabar Coast at Broach, Surat and at Maldive islands, and were noted for their high quality vessels. Akbar had an Imperial Navy. The Moghul Navy was based at Dacca. It was by no means a high seas fleet, but was a fleet of large boats. There was a medley of river craft built in the boat building yards at Hoogly, Balasur, Murangu, Chilmam, Jessore and Karibari.
It was during the Medieval period that a number of Indian Vessels were constructed, for the first time, purely for war at sea. Facilities for launching catapults and incendiary throwers, however, existed even earlier on board Indian ship. A Muslim ruler from Honavur launched in 1377 AD, a seaborne attack on Sandpur (Goa) with a war fleet of 52 vessels, including two landing craft which opened their sterns to launch soldiers on horse back, directly galloping from the boat on to the enemy’s shore. This was perhaps the first recorded incident in the Indian Maritime History where landing craft was used for assault.
With the coming of the Portuguese in 1498, building of warships in India underwent a change when guns were mounted on board. The practice was first adopted by the Zamorin of Calicut emulating the Portuguese ships. The malabar vessels started using sails made of cotton and anchors made of marble. The Portuguese started building their ships in Goa and Daman with Indian artisans under their employ, using indigenous materials.
The Marathas too gave impetus to the Indian shipbuilding industry. In the 17th century, the Maratha’s shipbuilding yards were developed at Vijaydurg, Swarndurg and Kolaba, where those famous grabs and gallivats were constructed. These boats were noted for their maneuverability in restricted waters and superb sailing qualities.
One of the oldest designs in ship construction was the Baghalah, which traversed in Gujarat Coast. Since the days of Alexander’s invasion, the Baghalah had retained its main features; overall length of 74 feet by 25 feet at its breadth, of 150 tons weight with holds as deep as 11 feet. The stern was almost perpendicular. The only modernisation that came about was the mounting of two guns at the stern, which was well rounded to give a large arc of fire. As for Baghalah’s durability, the Deria Doulut lasted 87 years from 1750 to 1837, more than what could be said of the life of present day ships !
Thus we see that there had been a long shipbuilding heritage even before the British entered the scene.
Sail to Steam
The industrial revolution, however, brought in its wake a number of changes in ship construction. The advent of the paddle steamers relegated India’s shipbuilding techniques based on sail propulsion. In 1836, screw propeller was invented. The Assaye and the Punjaub were first built as sailing ships in India in 1854/1856. Their sailing qualities were superb. The British converted both ships as paddle wheel steamers and then into screw propelled ships. By this time the Europeans were overtaking the Indians in shipbuilding.
Wood to Iron
In 1840 iron hull was introduced. The next generation was the ‘iron clad’ , clad in iron. The ship was protected by iron plates and rendered safer than purely wooden ones exposed during battle at sea, grounding or collision. Then came the steel hull in 1880.
Shipbuilding at the turn of 20th century
Independent countries introduced the necessary changes and were able to build up their own marine industry. But India had to go to the wall, in the interest of the British shipping and shipbuilding.
The prime mover was also developed in quick succession : 1895, the diesel engine, in 1900 turbine or rotary engine and in 1903, the electric motor vessel. The fuel used was wood, coal, oil, and finally gas in that sequence. Every advancement required change in machinery and equipment for operation and maintenance.
At the turn of the 20th century, the shipbuilding industry saw the development of design teams which replaced the earlier tradition of the brilliant “Single Designer” taking decisions.
The technical developments continued through the first world war, cyclic depression of the 1920s and 30s and the second world war, with the introduction of the turbine, diesel propulsion, supercharging engine, turbo-electric propulsion and much higher engine speeds, longitudinal framing replacing the transverse frames. Towards the beginning of second world war, electric arc welding began to be introduced.
Second Dark Age in Shipbuilding
The transition from sail to steam and from steam to power also came again at the wrong time for India. Since the British shipbuilders had refused to transfer this technology to the Indians and since the industrialisation in India had lagged way behind the European nations, the shipbuilding industry in India was doomed to virtual extinction. Though the Bombay Dockyard built its first steam ship, Hugh Lindsay, as early as in 1830, it had failed to sustain the effort of updating the technology of building iron clad and therefore got subsequently relegated to the status of just a maintenance and repair yard.
Indian shipbuilding was thus able to hold its own till about 1840. A revolution in the technique of ship construction and ship propulsion took place on account of the use of steam power and the use of iron plates in place of timber. Independent countries introduced the necessary changes and were able to build up their own marine industry. But India had to go to the wall, in the interest of the British shipping and shipbuilding.
The Wadia Era – 1735 to 1884
During the 18th century and first half of the 19th century, the shipbuilding activity in India was dominated by one community, the Parsis. Shipbuilding activity at Surat thrived during the Moghul period. Apparently, it was during the declining years of the Moghul period, that the Parsis had started showing absorbing interests in the art of shipbuilding. In addition to building ships on order, the Parsis also dealt with construction of boats for sale. After Surat, the shipbuilding moved to Daman, Dhabul, Bassein and Bombay. On an average one or two ships per year were being built at Bombay, from 1736 to 1743.; twelve ships of different types were built : Schooners, Grabs, Sloops, Ketches and Brigantines.
It is now in the beginning of the 21st century that serious actions are being taken to revive shipbuilding in India and restore her prestigious position in this profession once again.
Regular shipbuilding programme was drawn up for building ten ships during 1750 to 1760. The wood used in these early ships was quality teak, obtained mainly from the west coast. The ships built of Malabar teak by the Wadias for the East India Company’s Navy, not only cost far less but expected to last for 30 years against an English vessel average life of only 12 years.
These ships were also stronger, as was demonstrated when only one ship, ‘the Wadia frigate’—“Salsette” came through undamaged after a British naval squadron was trapped in ice for nine weeks in the North Baltic Sea. The “Salsette” was the first ship to be built in 1807 on direct order from the Admiralty. During 1810 to 1813, series of six 74-gun ships were built for the Royal Navy.
The story of Wadia’s shipbuilding in India cannot be complete without a mention of the “Foudroyant” launched in October 1817, a 46-gun ship, commissioned as the “Trincomalee” and later renamed as “Foudroyant”. She has the distinction of being the oldest ship still afloat. The longest recorded life of any ship built anywhere in the globe, this is truly one of the wonders of the world! The ship is afloat in British waters even today under their tender care.
Conclusion
The evolution of ships and shipbuilding, is, no doubt, a continuous process as technology advances. A floating vessel of some utility can be built with only the most elementary thought for design, such as a few fallen logs, collected at the edge of the stream and lashed together into a crude raft. In course of time, shaped wooden planks must have replaced irregular floating logs. It is with such crude beginning, that over the many centuries of intuition and trial & error, have grown today with an array of complicated and highly sophisticated ships. This is the result of man’s indomitable spirit of inquiry and adventure.
India had a rich shipbuilding culture as early as 3000 to 2000 BC as is briefly discussed in sections 1 & 2. This was followed by a dark age in shipbuilding in India during early Vedic Period from 2000 to 600 BC. Thereafter from 600 BC to end of 19th century AD, shipbuilding flourished in India and we were the leaders in this profession. The second dark age for shipbuilding in India started towards end of 19th century and continued in 20th century. It is now in the beginning of the 21st century that serious actions are being taken to revive shipbuilding in India and restore her prestigious position in this profession once again.
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